Types of Construction

The different constructions are labelled, and the labelling reflects the connections among them. The constructions can be represented in the form of a hierarchy, as in Figure 3.1 in Appendix 3. A major split is between constructions, such as (11a–c) below, that have the verb BE (traditionally called the copula or link verb) and constructions that have an ordinary’ verb. Both copula and non-copula constructions can be declarative, that is, they can have the structure used for making statements, and interrogative, that is, they can have the structure used for asking questions.

Interrogative constructions split into two types. YES–NO interrogatives are used for asking questions such as Did he phone?, to which the answer is yes or no. WH interrogatives are used for asking questions about participants in a situation: Who phoned?, When did he phone?, What did he say?, Where was he when he phoned?

Declarative constructions can be both active, as in (7a), and passive, as in (7c). Interrogative constructions can be active, as in (8a), or passive, as in (8c). In declarative constructions, the verb can be followed by a noun phrase and a prepositional phrase, as in bought the piano for Jane in (7a), or by two noun phrases, as in bought Jane the piano in (7b). The former construction is here labelled OBLIQUE OBJECT and the latter is labelled DOUBLE OBJECT. Interrogative constructions can be OBLIQUE OBJECT, as in Did Frank buy the piano for Jane? in (8a), or DOUBLE OBJECT, as in Did Frank buy Jane the piano? in (8b). In turn, the DOUBLE OBJECT construction can be active or passive – Frank bought Jane the piano in (7b) and Jane was bought that piano by Frank ; the OBLIQUE OBJECT construction too can be active or passive – Frank bought the piano for Jane (7a) and The piano was bought for Jane by Frank (7c).

(7) a. Frank bought the piano for Jane.
[NON-COPULA, DECLARATIVE, ACTIVE, OBLIQUE
OBJECT]

(7) b. Frank bought Jane the piano.
[NON-COPULA, DECLARATIVE, ACTIVE, DOUBLE
OBJECT]

(7) c. The piano was bought for Jane by Frank.
[NON-COPULA, DECLARATIVE, PASSIVE, OBLIQUE
OBJECT]

(7) d. The piano Frank bought for Jane.
[NON-COPULA, DECLARATIVE, ACTIVE, OBLIQUE
OBJECT, TOPIC]

(8) a. Did Frank buy the piano for Jane?
[NON-COPULA, INTERROGATIVE, YES–NO, ACTIVE,
OBLIQUE OBJECT]

(8) b. Did Frank buy Jane the piano?
[NON-COPULA, INTERROGATIVE, YES–NO, ACTIVE,
DOUBLE OBJECT]

(8) c. Was the piano bought for Jane by Frank?
[NON-COPULA, INTERROGATIVE, PASSIVE, OBLIQUE
OBJECT, YES–NO]